The Basque region spread over the western edge of the Pyrenees Mountains that divide France from Spain overlooking the Bay of Biscay. There are seven Basque provinces, four in Spain and three in France. The Basque people have lived there since that old proverbial time immemorial; they are believed to have occupied a geographical territory longer than any other European ethnic group.
Their origins are mysterious and continue to confound anthropologists. They are apparently unrelated to any other ethnic group. The Basque language is apparently unrelated to any known language. Some suggest it is the original indigenous, Paleolithic European language. The Basque were comparatively late converts to Christianity, and ancestral traditions including ritual dances and offerings to the dead survived conversion.
There were no Basque with-hunts per se, instead French witch-hunters and the Spanish Inquisition took turns entering Basque territory to hunt down and execute witches, and the Basque territory was the scene of extensive witch-hunting in the 16th and 17th century; French witch-hunters targeted Basque witches in the 17th.
The ethnic aspect of these witch-trials cannot be forgotten. Basque women were interrogated by French and Spanish men, most of whom could not speak their language and who thus relied on local translators and paid witch-finders.
Traditional Basque society was very different from that the witch-hunters left behind in Spain and France: Basque women were exceptionally independent for their time. Although men wintered at home, a high percentage of Basque men were fishermen who spent the entire summer fishing in Newfoundland. Adult women were, thus, left "unsupervised".
Spanish and France witch-hunters simultaneously disapproved and were titillated by these women. Witch-hunter Pierre de Lancre, in particular, reveals more about his own sexual fantasies in his memoirs than he does any witchcraft practices.
Spain conducted an intensive witch-hunt in Basque territory beginning in 1507. In 1507, over 30 women were burned as witches in Calahorra. In 1527, a craze began when two little girls, aged 9 and 11, claimed to belong to a coven. They told officials that if they were granted immunity, they would identify other witches for the witch-hunters. They claimed they could recognize witches by gazing into their left eyes: in witches, the sign of a frog's foot appeared above the pupil.
Officials took the girls, guarded by 50 horsemen, to various towns so that they could identify witches. Upon arriving in a village, the guards arrested all the women. Each child was placed in a separate house and women were sent in one by one to have their eyes inspected. If the girls pronounced a woman a witch, she was arrested. Over 150 were imprisoned and charged with witchcraft based on the testimony of these two children.
Rumors of thousands of Basque witches engaged in Satanic activity spread through France and Pierre de Lancre, and especially aggressive witch-hunter, was sent in his capacity as the French King's councilor to lead a ferocious witch-hunt through French Basque territory. De Lancre confirmed these rumors: according to him, La Hendaye Beach in French Basque territory had sabbats attended by no less than 12,000 witches.
De Lancre indicted so many witches that the jails literally couldn't hold them all. He reported executing 600 Basque witches, burned alive at the stake, during four months in 1906.
De Lancre despised and hated Basque people, and especially independent Basque women who were used to acting as heads of their households. De Lancre was particularly aggravated that women acted as sacristans in church.
He suggested that the Basque witches were part of an international conspiracy with other European witches in order to eradicate Roman Catholicism and Christianity. De Lancre went too far when he began executing priests accused of being or supporting witches: for instance Basque priest Pierre Bocal, accused of wearing a goat mask and presiding over both Christian and Pagan rites and subsequently burned alive. The French public lost its taste for the witch-hunts at that point, and d Lancre fell from public favor.
Official records of the French Basque witch trials were destroyed in a fire in 1710. The best surviving source is de Lancre's own rambling memoirs. To this day, de Lancre's text provides major source material for most discussions of Basque witchcraft. De Lancre did not understand the Basque language; all interrogations were done via interpreters. The witches' confessions, offered in Basque, were recorded by de Lancre in French.
*Credit to Judika Illes
Friday, June 10, 2016
Witch-Craze: Bacchanalia
Hysterical witch-hunting is older than Christianity; Roman persecution of the Bacchanalia is somethings called the first "witch hunt".
The Bacchanalia was the Latin name for the Dionysian mystery traditions of the Maenads, or as they were known in Italy, the Bacchanals. Initially held in Etruria, these traditions traveled to Southern Italy and thence to Rome. Rituals were initially restricted to women and conducted secretly three days a year in the Grove of Stimula near the Aventine Hill. Men were eventually admitted to the rites, which increased to five days a month. However the majority of the initiates were female. Initially the Bacchanalia was identified with slaves and immigrant women from Greece, the Balkans, and elsewhere but it eventually attracted respectable Roman matrons who assumed leadership roles.
The Bacchanalia became increasingly controversial; it developed a malevolent, mysterious reputation among conventional society and was accused of fomenting political conspiracies. The Bacchanals were accused of poisoning, ritual murder, sexual deviance, and treason. The Roman senate issued a decree, the Senatus Consultum de Bacchanalibus in BCE, forbidding the Bacchanalia throughout Italy except where the Senate itself reserved the right to permit the rites.
According to the Roman historian Livy, the Bacchanals were charged with holding secret nocturnal meetings, allegedly featuring dancing, music, feasting, orgies, homosexuality, and ritual murder. But for the absence of Satan, it sounds remarkably like a European witch-hunters' sabbat of over a millennium later.
The charges that detonate these witch-hunts allegedly began with family dispute: a young Roman patrician, Aebutius was asked to leave home by his mother. She later claimed it was because her husband, Aebutius' step father, was strapped for money; Aebutius claimed he was thrown out because he refused to be initiated into the Bacchanalia as his mother desired.
Aebutius said his concubine Hispala, a freed woman, had previously attended the Bacchanalia and warned him that it was depraved. Aebutius went to his late father's sister who advised him to make a formal complaint to the Consul, which he did. Essentially he denounced his mother as a Bacchanal.
Hispala was called in and questioned for details regarding what the Bacchanals were really doing at their secret nighttime revels. She allegedly initially refused to testify but was advised that she herself would be prosecuted unless she provided authorities with information. Hispala first claimed that she only attended the Bacchanalia as a child and so had limited information; after further questioning however she gave more details, describing torch-lit oracular rites by the Tiber River and naming the current leader of the Bacchanalia as Paculla Annia, a High Priestess from Campania.
The Consul held a public assembly where he accused the Bacchanals, now called the Conjurari, of a criminal conspiracy intended to undermine Roman society. The Senate ordered an immediate extraordinary investigation permitting torture and denying defendants' rights of appeal. A zero-tolerance policy was instituted in the form of a massive witch-hunt for members of the secret society, followed by mass executions.
*An edict outlawed initiates of the Mysteries from convening.
*The Senate offered a reward to anyone denouncing participants in the Bacchanalia.
*Officials were ordered to seek out ritual leaders.
*Roman men were ordered to reject participating members of their family.
The Senate simultaneously enacted legislation against diviners and foreign magicians.
Panic swept first Rome, then all of Italy. There were rumored to be over seven thousand Conjurari. Recent initiates were merely imprisoned but thousands were condemned to death. The state allowed men to punish their female relatives in the privacy of their home but if no one was available to execute them privately, it was done publicly. Heads of households thus personally executed wives, daughters, sisters, and slaves or ran the risk of disgracing the family via public executions.
What happened to Paculla, the priestess, is unknown, but her sons were arrested as leaders, tortured to denounce others, and executed. Those they denounced were also tortured until they denounced still others.
Known initiates, both female and male, committed suicide rather than face arrest. Some however escaped, including some who had been denounced but whom the authorities were then unable to locate. These Bacchanals are believed to have escaped into forests and mountains. Many believe these escaped Bacchanals are the prototype for Europe's future witches.
Even after the Bacchanalia-panic receded in Rome, the hunt for surviving Bacchanals continued throughout Apulia and other parts of the Italian countryside through 185-184 BCE. What happened to Aebutius' mother is unknown but the Senate rewarded Aebutius and Hispala out of the public treasury and promoted Hispala to a higher social rank so that the couple could be legally wed.
*Credit to Judika Illes
The Bacchanalia was the Latin name for the Dionysian mystery traditions of the Maenads, or as they were known in Italy, the Bacchanals. Initially held in Etruria, these traditions traveled to Southern Italy and thence to Rome. Rituals were initially restricted to women and conducted secretly three days a year in the Grove of Stimula near the Aventine Hill. Men were eventually admitted to the rites, which increased to five days a month. However the majority of the initiates were female. Initially the Bacchanalia was identified with slaves and immigrant women from Greece, the Balkans, and elsewhere but it eventually attracted respectable Roman matrons who assumed leadership roles.
The Bacchanalia became increasingly controversial; it developed a malevolent, mysterious reputation among conventional society and was accused of fomenting political conspiracies. The Bacchanals were accused of poisoning, ritual murder, sexual deviance, and treason. The Roman senate issued a decree, the Senatus Consultum de Bacchanalibus in BCE, forbidding the Bacchanalia throughout Italy except where the Senate itself reserved the right to permit the rites.
According to the Roman historian Livy, the Bacchanals were charged with holding secret nocturnal meetings, allegedly featuring dancing, music, feasting, orgies, homosexuality, and ritual murder. But for the absence of Satan, it sounds remarkably like a European witch-hunters' sabbat of over a millennium later.
The charges that detonate these witch-hunts allegedly began with family dispute: a young Roman patrician, Aebutius was asked to leave home by his mother. She later claimed it was because her husband, Aebutius' step father, was strapped for money; Aebutius claimed he was thrown out because he refused to be initiated into the Bacchanalia as his mother desired.
Aebutius said his concubine Hispala, a freed woman, had previously attended the Bacchanalia and warned him that it was depraved. Aebutius went to his late father's sister who advised him to make a formal complaint to the Consul, which he did. Essentially he denounced his mother as a Bacchanal.
Hispala was called in and questioned for details regarding what the Bacchanals were really doing at their secret nighttime revels. She allegedly initially refused to testify but was advised that she herself would be prosecuted unless she provided authorities with information. Hispala first claimed that she only attended the Bacchanalia as a child and so had limited information; after further questioning however she gave more details, describing torch-lit oracular rites by the Tiber River and naming the current leader of the Bacchanalia as Paculla Annia, a High Priestess from Campania.
The Consul held a public assembly where he accused the Bacchanals, now called the Conjurari, of a criminal conspiracy intended to undermine Roman society. The Senate ordered an immediate extraordinary investigation permitting torture and denying defendants' rights of appeal. A zero-tolerance policy was instituted in the form of a massive witch-hunt for members of the secret society, followed by mass executions.
*An edict outlawed initiates of the Mysteries from convening.
*The Senate offered a reward to anyone denouncing participants in the Bacchanalia.
*Officials were ordered to seek out ritual leaders.
*Roman men were ordered to reject participating members of their family.
The Senate simultaneously enacted legislation against diviners and foreign magicians.
Panic swept first Rome, then all of Italy. There were rumored to be over seven thousand Conjurari. Recent initiates were merely imprisoned but thousands were condemned to death. The state allowed men to punish their female relatives in the privacy of their home but if no one was available to execute them privately, it was done publicly. Heads of households thus personally executed wives, daughters, sisters, and slaves or ran the risk of disgracing the family via public executions.
What happened to Paculla, the priestess, is unknown, but her sons were arrested as leaders, tortured to denounce others, and executed. Those they denounced were also tortured until they denounced still others.
Known initiates, both female and male, committed suicide rather than face arrest. Some however escaped, including some who had been denounced but whom the authorities were then unable to locate. These Bacchanals are believed to have escaped into forests and mountains. Many believe these escaped Bacchanals are the prototype for Europe's future witches.
Even after the Bacchanalia-panic receded in Rome, the hunt for surviving Bacchanals continued throughout Apulia and other parts of the Italian countryside through 185-184 BCE. What happened to Aebutius' mother is unknown but the Senate rewarded Aebutius and Hispala out of the public treasury and promoted Hispala to a higher social rank so that the couple could be legally wed.
*Credit to Judika Illes
Witch-Craze: Africa
Prior to colonial rule, in general, individuals were accused of being magickal malefactors and dealt with on an individual basis. European-style witch-hunts began during colonial rule and still continue. Whether this change of attitude derives from enforced colonialism and/or exposure to Christianity is subject to debate.
Although hysterical witch-hunts and trials are now considered an aberration elsewhere, a relic of history, they are on the rise in sub-Saharan Africa. Witches are accused of transforming into bats and night birds, transforming people into sombis or committing murder via lightning or poison. Witchcraft is also blamed for Aids.
*In 1992, over 300 people in Kenya were lynched as witches.
*From April 1994 to February 1995, 97 women and 46 men accused of witchcraft in South Africa were killed by mob violence.
*Between January and June 1998, South Africa's Northern Province reported 386 crimes against suspected witches including assault, property damage, and murder.
*Thousands of children throughout sub-Saharan Africa have been the targets of witchcraft hysteria. Children have been tortured, abandoned, and killed. Many have suffered brutal exorcisms of the demons they are assumed to house.
The Ministry of Safety of South Africa's Northern Transvaal Province established a Commission of Inquiry into Witchcraft, Violence and Ritual Killings. A report published in May 1996 stated that thousands accused of witchcraft had been driven from their homes, losing all their property.
*Credit to Judika Illes
Although hysterical witch-hunts and trials are now considered an aberration elsewhere, a relic of history, they are on the rise in sub-Saharan Africa. Witches are accused of transforming into bats and night birds, transforming people into sombis or committing murder via lightning or poison. Witchcraft is also blamed for Aids.
*In 1992, over 300 people in Kenya were lynched as witches.
*From April 1994 to February 1995, 97 women and 46 men accused of witchcraft in South Africa were killed by mob violence.
*Between January and June 1998, South Africa's Northern Province reported 386 crimes against suspected witches including assault, property damage, and murder.
*Thousands of children throughout sub-Saharan Africa have been the targets of witchcraft hysteria. Children have been tortured, abandoned, and killed. Many have suffered brutal exorcisms of the demons they are assumed to house.
The Ministry of Safety of South Africa's Northern Transvaal Province established a Commission of Inquiry into Witchcraft, Violence and Ritual Killings. A report published in May 1996 stated that thousands accused of witchcraft had been driven from their homes, losing all their property.
*Credit to Judika Illes
Witch-craze!
If an individual has the capacity to bless others with good fortune, for instance, then that individual also possess the capacity to withhold that blessing...or worse.
This is true not only of witches, however, but of any specialist. Although it's a rare occurrence, every once in a while one does hear of a physician who has forsaken the Hippocratic Oath to do no harm but instead emerges as a secret, malevolent Angel of Death. However, those rare occurrences have not caused prejudice against physicians among the general public, nor have they caused "physician hysteria": the panic-stricken fear that every physician is secretly committed to causing only harm.
Likewise, in many traditional societies, it's recognized that although the occasional witch or shaman may become corrupt, the majority are responsible, ethical professionals. Most traditional societies have ago-old legal mechanisms in place for magickal practitioners perceived as malefactors, but this does not reflect negatively on the greater community of magickal practitioners, or does this constitute a "witch panic".
A witch panic is characterized by an absolutely hysterical, irrational, fear of witchcraft and witches. A witch doesn't have to cause harm for others to fear and persecute her. In fact, they may not have to be a witch at all.: the key word in "witch hysteria" or "witch panic" is not the first but the second. Witch panics are characterized by a crazed terror that there is a secret conspiracy of witches, a fifth column that seeks to undermine society and cause harm to individuals. No need to wait for the witches to prove they mean no harm; in a witch-craze, authorities search out any possible link to witchcraft and attempt to terminate it mercilessly.
Although witch panics existed earlier and still exist today, in some parts of Earth, the term "Witch-Craze" historically refers to a specific era of European history, also called the "Burning Times".
Although the European Witch-Craze lasted hundreds of years, covering most of the continent as well as colonies in the Western Hemisphere and claimed as victims, at a minimum, thousand of people, until recently it was a relatively obscure historical subject; it is still generally treated as a footnote or aberration of history.
Many studies of the Witch-Craze have, however, been published in the last two decades; in general, their focus is on perpetrators rather than on victims. All sorts of rationales are offered as to why "normal" people went so witch-crazy. Various books posit all kinds of different solutions for that dilemma, from physical causes to cultural, and all points in between.
However, to paraphrase author and physician M. Scott Peck, nothing of significance has but one root cause. There is a tendency to study the vast, sprawling topic of the European witch hunts as an isolated subject, rather than in historical context. It is not really possible to fully understand them without also considering other concurrent historical events:
*The persecution of landless minorities in Europe: Jews, Romany, and Salamis.
*Continued efforts to eradicate all vestiges of Pagan tradition.
*Unresolved issues stemming from, often forced, conversion to Christianity.
*The emotional and psychological impact of the Black Death and other deadly plagues.
*The imposition of feudalism in some parts of Europe and the development of a professional class in others.
*The denigration and demonization of an entire gender.
How many people died in the Witch-Craze? Figures offered range from as low as the tens of thousands to as many as nine million.
Those victims who died during the interrogation process may or may not be counted alongside those who perished during documented executions. Not all executions were documented. Sometimes records of convictions of witchcraft exist with no further information regarding eventual punishment.
Witch panics possessed regional characteristics:
*In Russia, there was no "witch hunt" per se; however those attending at court were frequently accused of using witchcraft for political purposes or to harm the royal family.
*In Transylvania, wives and female relatives of political competitors were targeted.
*In Hungary, practitioners of shamanism were targeted.
*In German lands, wealthy people were particularly vulnerable to charges of witchcraft as if convicted land and assets were confiscated by witch hunters.
*In France, a series of highly publicized cases involved demonic possession of nuns within convents, usually with a priest charged as perpetrator.
*Credit to Judika Illes
This is true not only of witches, however, but of any specialist. Although it's a rare occurrence, every once in a while one does hear of a physician who has forsaken the Hippocratic Oath to do no harm but instead emerges as a secret, malevolent Angel of Death. However, those rare occurrences have not caused prejudice against physicians among the general public, nor have they caused "physician hysteria": the panic-stricken fear that every physician is secretly committed to causing only harm.
Likewise, in many traditional societies, it's recognized that although the occasional witch or shaman may become corrupt, the majority are responsible, ethical professionals. Most traditional societies have ago-old legal mechanisms in place for magickal practitioners perceived as malefactors, but this does not reflect negatively on the greater community of magickal practitioners, or does this constitute a "witch panic".
A witch panic is characterized by an absolutely hysterical, irrational, fear of witchcraft and witches. A witch doesn't have to cause harm for others to fear and persecute her. In fact, they may not have to be a witch at all.: the key word in "witch hysteria" or "witch panic" is not the first but the second. Witch panics are characterized by a crazed terror that there is a secret conspiracy of witches, a fifth column that seeks to undermine society and cause harm to individuals. No need to wait for the witches to prove they mean no harm; in a witch-craze, authorities search out any possible link to witchcraft and attempt to terminate it mercilessly.
Although witch panics existed earlier and still exist today, in some parts of Earth, the term "Witch-Craze" historically refers to a specific era of European history, also called the "Burning Times".
Although the European Witch-Craze lasted hundreds of years, covering most of the continent as well as colonies in the Western Hemisphere and claimed as victims, at a minimum, thousand of people, until recently it was a relatively obscure historical subject; it is still generally treated as a footnote or aberration of history.
Many studies of the Witch-Craze have, however, been published in the last two decades; in general, their focus is on perpetrators rather than on victims. All sorts of rationales are offered as to why "normal" people went so witch-crazy. Various books posit all kinds of different solutions for that dilemma, from physical causes to cultural, and all points in between.
However, to paraphrase author and physician M. Scott Peck, nothing of significance has but one root cause. There is a tendency to study the vast, sprawling topic of the European witch hunts as an isolated subject, rather than in historical context. It is not really possible to fully understand them without also considering other concurrent historical events:
*The persecution of landless minorities in Europe: Jews, Romany, and Salamis.
*Continued efforts to eradicate all vestiges of Pagan tradition.
*Unresolved issues stemming from, often forced, conversion to Christianity.
*The emotional and psychological impact of the Black Death and other deadly plagues.
*The imposition of feudalism in some parts of Europe and the development of a professional class in others.
*The denigration and demonization of an entire gender.
How many people died in the Witch-Craze? Figures offered range from as low as the tens of thousands to as many as nine million.
Those victims who died during the interrogation process may or may not be counted alongside those who perished during documented executions. Not all executions were documented. Sometimes records of convictions of witchcraft exist with no further information regarding eventual punishment.
Witch panics possessed regional characteristics:
*In Russia, there was no "witch hunt" per se; however those attending at court were frequently accused of using witchcraft for political purposes or to harm the royal family.
*In Transylvania, wives and female relatives of political competitors were targeted.
*In Hungary, practitioners of shamanism were targeted.
*In German lands, wealthy people were particularly vulnerable to charges of witchcraft as if convicted land and assets were confiscated by witch hunters.
*In France, a series of highly publicized cases involved demonic possession of nuns within convents, usually with a priest charged as perpetrator.
*Credit to Judika Illes
Beltane
Beltane is the conventional modern spelling. Bealtaine is the traditional Irish spelling.
Beltane officially beings at moon-rise on the evening before the first day of May. It is the Celtic festival corresponding to May Eve, which is metaphysically understood as the moment when Earth's generative, reproductive, and sexual energies are at their peak. Beltane, is among the many May festivals celebrating Earth's sexual and reproductive powers; however Beltane has added resonance in Celtic lands as it also inaugurates the second half of the year. One may visualize this calendar as akin to a yin-yang symbol, with Beltane proclaiming the start of the bright yang portion.
Much of what we know of Celtic festivals derives from Ireland, although the Celts once dominated a good part of Europe. There are indications that similar festivals were held elsewhere in Celtic Europe, not lease by the prevalence of May Day celebrations throughout the entire continent.
Known as Calan Mai in Wales, Beltane is the Celtic fire festival marking the beginning of summer. The name may derive from "bel" (light) or "bil" (luck) and the general consensus is that Beltane means "bright fire". The name may also honor the Celtic deity named Bel or Belenus. Another possibility is that Bel is either derived from or identical to the pan-Semitic fertility deity Baal.
Fire may be understood as a little bit of the sun on Earth. In the spirit of the metaphysical adage "as above, so below", the magickal power of the sun was rekindled and enhanced by the Beltane bonfires. These bonfires were known as "bel-fires" or bale fires. They joyfully celebrate and proclaim the return of fertility to Earth. Beltane bonfires were ritual fires and were traditionally kindled by friction or by sparks from a flint.
The bonfires convey the magickal, healing, energizing force of fire. In order to benefit from this positive magick radiant energy, people dance around the fire, jump over it, crawl through it once it gets low and also drive their livestock through. Although any animal can benefit from the magick of the bale fires, cattle, the sacred cow so intrinsic to Irish myth, are especially associated with Beltane. If there are twin fires or multiple fires, people will dance between them and lead animals between. The ultimate goal of these rituals is disease prevention and the termination of bad luck, as well as the renewal of fertility and creativity.
Although a sacred day, Beltane was a happy, raucous holiday, not a serious, solemn one. It is impossible to celebrate Earth's sexuality without simultaneously reveling in human sexuality too. Beltane was one of those anarchic festivals where everyday constraints were thrown to the winds. The Christian Church would eventually condemn the carnal licentiousness of Beltane rites, accusing the populace of indiscriminate copulation. Although defamatory, these accusations weren't without a vestige of truth, however disapproval stems from perspective and perhaps a wee bit of jealousy. After all, some people were having fun when others weren't. Children whose birthdays fell near the Celtic festival imbolc, which occurs precisely nine months later, were affectionately known as "Beltane babies", and were considered to be special children with strong psychic powers and favored by the fairies.
Beltane was understood as a witches' festival, when witches came out to play, as well as a day that was sacred to devotees of the Fairy Faith. Perhaps their very visibility on this date made those with magickal or Pagan inclinations vulnerable to those with other orientations. Notions of sacrifice, and especially of sacrificial witches permeate many historic Beltane traditions, and May became a time when witches and their animal allies were persecuted.
*Cats and rabbits discovered in the fields in Ireland during Beltane were traditionally understood as witches in disguise and frequently killed on the spot, often by being tossed into the bonfires.
*Litters of kittens born during the entire month of May were feared as potential witches' familiars and summarily drowned.
*A tradition known as "burning the witches" persisted in the Scottish Highlands into the 18th century. young men took bits of the burning Beltane bonfires onto pitchforks. They then ran through the fields shouting "Fire! Fire! Burn the witches!" The fire is scattered through the fields to enhance their fecundity-which in fact, it does.
The joyful aspects of Beltane have been incorporated into contemporary Wicca. Aspects of the festival devoted to the sun, human sexuality, and the regeneration of life and magickal power are emphasized.
*Credit to Judika Illes
Beltane officially beings at moon-rise on the evening before the first day of May. It is the Celtic festival corresponding to May Eve, which is metaphysically understood as the moment when Earth's generative, reproductive, and sexual energies are at their peak. Beltane, is among the many May festivals celebrating Earth's sexual and reproductive powers; however Beltane has added resonance in Celtic lands as it also inaugurates the second half of the year. One may visualize this calendar as akin to a yin-yang symbol, with Beltane proclaiming the start of the bright yang portion.
Much of what we know of Celtic festivals derives from Ireland, although the Celts once dominated a good part of Europe. There are indications that similar festivals were held elsewhere in Celtic Europe, not lease by the prevalence of May Day celebrations throughout the entire continent.
Known as Calan Mai in Wales, Beltane is the Celtic fire festival marking the beginning of summer. The name may derive from "bel" (light) or "bil" (luck) and the general consensus is that Beltane means "bright fire". The name may also honor the Celtic deity named Bel or Belenus. Another possibility is that Bel is either derived from or identical to the pan-Semitic fertility deity Baal.
Fire may be understood as a little bit of the sun on Earth. In the spirit of the metaphysical adage "as above, so below", the magickal power of the sun was rekindled and enhanced by the Beltane bonfires. These bonfires were known as "bel-fires" or bale fires. They joyfully celebrate and proclaim the return of fertility to Earth. Beltane bonfires were ritual fires and were traditionally kindled by friction or by sparks from a flint.
The bonfires convey the magickal, healing, energizing force of fire. In order to benefit from this positive magick radiant energy, people dance around the fire, jump over it, crawl through it once it gets low and also drive their livestock through. Although any animal can benefit from the magick of the bale fires, cattle, the sacred cow so intrinsic to Irish myth, are especially associated with Beltane. If there are twin fires or multiple fires, people will dance between them and lead animals between. The ultimate goal of these rituals is disease prevention and the termination of bad luck, as well as the renewal of fertility and creativity.
Although a sacred day, Beltane was a happy, raucous holiday, not a serious, solemn one. It is impossible to celebrate Earth's sexuality without simultaneously reveling in human sexuality too. Beltane was one of those anarchic festivals where everyday constraints were thrown to the winds. The Christian Church would eventually condemn the carnal licentiousness of Beltane rites, accusing the populace of indiscriminate copulation. Although defamatory, these accusations weren't without a vestige of truth, however disapproval stems from perspective and perhaps a wee bit of jealousy. After all, some people were having fun when others weren't. Children whose birthdays fell near the Celtic festival imbolc, which occurs precisely nine months later, were affectionately known as "Beltane babies", and were considered to be special children with strong psychic powers and favored by the fairies.
Beltane was understood as a witches' festival, when witches came out to play, as well as a day that was sacred to devotees of the Fairy Faith. Perhaps their very visibility on this date made those with magickal or Pagan inclinations vulnerable to those with other orientations. Notions of sacrifice, and especially of sacrificial witches permeate many historic Beltane traditions, and May became a time when witches and their animal allies were persecuted.
*Cats and rabbits discovered in the fields in Ireland during Beltane were traditionally understood as witches in disguise and frequently killed on the spot, often by being tossed into the bonfires.
*Litters of kittens born during the entire month of May were feared as potential witches' familiars and summarily drowned.
*A tradition known as "burning the witches" persisted in the Scottish Highlands into the 18th century. young men took bits of the burning Beltane bonfires onto pitchforks. They then ran through the fields shouting "Fire! Fire! Burn the witches!" The fire is scattered through the fields to enhance their fecundity-which in fact, it does.
The joyful aspects of Beltane have been incorporated into contemporary Wicca. Aspects of the festival devoted to the sun, human sexuality, and the regeneration of life and magickal power are emphasized.
*Credit to Judika Illes
Anthestheria
Anthestheria, the "festival of flowers", heralds the arrival of Dionysus, Lord of New Life and Wine, literally. It hails the birth of the deity plus the annual ritual opening of new casks of wine. The festival was devoted to birth, death, purification, and fertility.
Only one of several annual festivals honoring Dionysus in Greece, the Anthestheria was held for three days in the month of Anthesterion (February/March). According to some analyses of the festival, it corresponds with Dionysus' birth. If there is such a thing as a "triple goddess" then Dionysus is the corresponding "triple god"; during this festival he is honored as infant, husband, and dying god.
Opening the new casks of wine isn't as simple and forthright as it sounds. The wine casks were half-buried in Earth during the fermentation period, so their removal is like a birth, specifically like a C-Section and even more specifically like Dionysus' own birth. Dionysus' mother died before he was born; the unborn child was surgically removed from her womb and then sewed up within his father Zeus' thigh, where he was allowed to mature in peace until the time was ripe. Ritually unearthing the casks and opening them is a metaphoric re-enactment of Dionysus' birth. His devotees share in the deity's essence by consuming him; drinking the wine accomplishes this purpose.
Initially the festival was apparently celebrated by women and children, but there are many gaps in the historical narrative. Many aspects of devotion to Dionysus fall under the category of "mystery traditions" and hence secrecy was always a component. In addition, the more female-oriented aspects of his devotion ultimately became disreputable and illegal. Information regarding them was suppressed.
The first two days of the festival were devoted to honoring the deity and the new wine. The festival's days were punctuated by secret celebrations for mature women, rituals of initiation for children, and general revelry and celebration for all. Everyone was invited to the party, including men, ancestral spirits, dead souls, and various spiritual entities.
There are two levels to this festival, however. It was a public festival, with some aspects celebrated by all, but it was simultaneously also a mystery celebration. Dionysus' most devoted servants, the maenads and others, celebrated secret rites in his honor, apparently including the Great Rite, the scared marriage between deity and devotee.
The festival's three nights were reserved for women's mysteries. The maenads celebrated privately in the mountains and forests. Little information survives, however mature women were understood to play the role of brides of Dionysus at this time. Among the festival's goals was the stimulation of personal and agricultural fertility.
Rituals and celebrations evolve over time. Attitudes towards ghosts changed. What seems to have originally been a day devoted to honoring dead ancestors eventually became a time of fear. Household doorposts were smeared with pitch in an effort to keep phones Many shrines and temples were kept tightly sealed on this day, allegedly to prevent ghosts from entering and lingering longer than their allotted time on Earth.
The festival concludes when women carry pots of cooked grains and vegetables to the marshes to bid farewell to the dead with the ritual incantation "Begone Ghosts! The Anthestheria is over!".
If rituals are conducted correctly, the end result is the removal and purification of malevolent ghosts, low-level spirits, and spiritual debris. Modern versions and adaptations of the Anthestheria are celebrated by some Neo-pagans.
*Credit to Judika Illes
Only one of several annual festivals honoring Dionysus in Greece, the Anthestheria was held for three days in the month of Anthesterion (February/March). According to some analyses of the festival, it corresponds with Dionysus' birth. If there is such a thing as a "triple goddess" then Dionysus is the corresponding "triple god"; during this festival he is honored as infant, husband, and dying god.
Opening the new casks of wine isn't as simple and forthright as it sounds. The wine casks were half-buried in Earth during the fermentation period, so their removal is like a birth, specifically like a C-Section and even more specifically like Dionysus' own birth. Dionysus' mother died before he was born; the unborn child was surgically removed from her womb and then sewed up within his father Zeus' thigh, where he was allowed to mature in peace until the time was ripe. Ritually unearthing the casks and opening them is a metaphoric re-enactment of Dionysus' birth. His devotees share in the deity's essence by consuming him; drinking the wine accomplishes this purpose.
Initially the festival was apparently celebrated by women and children, but there are many gaps in the historical narrative. Many aspects of devotion to Dionysus fall under the category of "mystery traditions" and hence secrecy was always a component. In addition, the more female-oriented aspects of his devotion ultimately became disreputable and illegal. Information regarding them was suppressed.
The first two days of the festival were devoted to honoring the deity and the new wine. The festival's days were punctuated by secret celebrations for mature women, rituals of initiation for children, and general revelry and celebration for all. Everyone was invited to the party, including men, ancestral spirits, dead souls, and various spiritual entities.
There are two levels to this festival, however. It was a public festival, with some aspects celebrated by all, but it was simultaneously also a mystery celebration. Dionysus' most devoted servants, the maenads and others, celebrated secret rites in his honor, apparently including the Great Rite, the scared marriage between deity and devotee.
The festival's three nights were reserved for women's mysteries. The maenads celebrated privately in the mountains and forests. Little information survives, however mature women were understood to play the role of brides of Dionysus at this time. Among the festival's goals was the stimulation of personal and agricultural fertility.
Rituals and celebrations evolve over time. Attitudes towards ghosts changed. What seems to have originally been a day devoted to honoring dead ancestors eventually became a time of fear. Household doorposts were smeared with pitch in an effort to keep phones Many shrines and temples were kept tightly sealed on this day, allegedly to prevent ghosts from entering and lingering longer than their allotted time on Earth.
The festival concludes when women carry pots of cooked grains and vegetables to the marshes to bid farewell to the dead with the ritual incantation "Begone Ghosts! The Anthestheria is over!".
If rituals are conducted correctly, the end result is the removal and purification of malevolent ghosts, low-level spirits, and spiritual debris. Modern versions and adaptations of the Anthestheria are celebrated by some Neo-pagans.
*Credit to Judika Illes
Witchcraft: The Wheel of the Year
The seasonal shifts and holidays are extremely important. The Wheel of the Year is celebrated though ritual holidays falling on the equinoxes, solstices, and points in-between called fire festivals. The modern Wheel is a collection of rites taken from European lineages, primarily Celtic and Teutonic. The modern Wheel tells the story of the Goddess and God, through many faces and myths, as they grow and change through the season of the year. The changing season help Wiccans get into immediate contact with deity, harmonizing them with the world. (In later postings I will address each holiday in its own post.)
The winter solstice, also called Yule, is when the Sun's light starts to grow. Cultures across the Northern Hemisphere saw it as the birth of the Young God. Many of the familiar Christmas celebrations were taken from Yule, including mistletoe, Yule logs, and decorating evergreen trees with lights, a symbol of the everlasting Goddess and the return of the God of Light. Although still deep in winter, the light and life are returning to the world.
Imbolc comes on February 2nd, a fire festival often dedicated to the goddess Brid, or Bridget. Brid is the triple goddess of light, and a patron of the home, healers, poets, and smiths. Some compare her to the Greek goddess Hestia, the goddess of the home and hearth. Candles are lit and homes are blessed. Advent wreaths are a remnant of Brid's crown of candles. Imbolc is sometimes known as Candle-mas.
Ostra, the spring equinox, is the celebration of the Goddess rising and the Earth's resurrection. She returns from her winter slumber and brings with her the first signs of spring. The festival is names after the Teutonic goddess Ostre, the egg or see goddess. Blessing and planting seeds and painting eggs are part of these traditions. Although names after Ostre, the Greek myth of Persephone rising from the realm of the dead to usher in the growing season with her mother, Demeter, also resonates on the equinox.
Beltane is the first festival of May 1st. Traditionally, herds were driven between two large bale fires of sacred wood to purify them of any lingering winter illness. Modern purification rites, both with fire and water, are performed on Beltane. It is dedicated to the young, fiery god Bel. The God has grown from the winter solstice into a young man, and claims his role as the Goddess' lover. Sexuality and passion are enjoyed on Beltane, and May Pole dances are traditional, representing the union of the God into the Earth Goddess.
The summer solstice, or Feast of Litha,is the divine marriage of Goddess and God. They are at the peak of their power, as the land is in full bloom and the harvest is expected. The day is the longest of the year, giving us an extended period of twilight, when the doors to the faery realm are open wide and we may celebrate with the spirits of the other-world. Some traditions see this holiday as the battle of the divided light and dark aspects of the God. The dark king is victorious, claiming the throne with the Goddess.
Lammas, the fire festival of August 1st. In the Irish traditions it is known as Lughnassadh, after Lugh of the Long Arm, a god of light and grain. His talents are many and unequaled. Games and sports are played on this feast. Though originally names Lugh's Funeral Feast, after his mother's death, it is now associated with Lugh's own death, as the scarified king of the grain. Corn-dolly effigies are burned and the first grains of the harvest are cut and given as an offering to the gods in thanks. The sacrifice of the old God ushers in the bounty of the first harvest.
The second harvest is the fruit or wine harvest on the fall equinox. Named after the Celtic god Mabon, who gets lost in the Underworld, this is a time to journey to the dark. Wine is one of the ways to open the magickal passages between realms. Myths of other harvest gods, particular those associated with wine, such as Dionysus, are celebrated.
Samhain is the traditional meat harvest and the Celtic New Year. Falling on October 31st, it has been turned into modern Halloween, but was a very important pagan festival. Samhain is the day of the dead. This was the day when the first of the herd was slaughtered, opening the veils between the worlds. Since the day is one of death, ancestors who have passed on are associated with it, coming back through the veil to give blessings and advice. Soul meals are prepared for the dead, goodbyes are said to lost loved ones, and candles are lit to mark their way back. Eventually this thinning of the veil became a fearful event, and costumes were worn to scare away the walkers between the worlds, though originally it was a normal part of the culture, with no fear or dread.
These eight festivals are called Sabbats, thought the individual traditions celebrated them differently. The term harkens back to the Burning Times, to the Hebrews Sabbath, when witches and Jews alike were prosecuted as heretics. Modern witches have adopted the word. An Esbat refers to another type of ritual, usually a Moon ritual. Esbats are typically private circles, for covens, small groups who work magick together. Community and family are usually welcome to the Sabbaths, which are more celebratory in nature. With Esbats, the goal is working magick in an intimate setting. Esbats usually coincide with the Full or Dark Moon. Witches celebrate the 13 Moons of the lunar year. The term circle is sometimes used synonymously with Esbat, or with a group of practitioners, but a circle specifically refers to the ritual of the circle, a ceremony of celebration and magick called a witch's circle, moon circle, or magician's circle. Circles are cast in both Esbats and Sabbats or any other magickal event, depending on the tradition.
Life rituals, or rites of passage, are marked along with the holidays. Like tribal people, pagans mark turning points in life with ceremony or ritual. Traditions are individual, but usually birth, coming of age, hand-fasting (marriage), elder-hood, and death are celebrated.
*Credit to Christopher Penczak
The winter solstice, also called Yule, is when the Sun's light starts to grow. Cultures across the Northern Hemisphere saw it as the birth of the Young God. Many of the familiar Christmas celebrations were taken from Yule, including mistletoe, Yule logs, and decorating evergreen trees with lights, a symbol of the everlasting Goddess and the return of the God of Light. Although still deep in winter, the light and life are returning to the world.
Imbolc comes on February 2nd, a fire festival often dedicated to the goddess Brid, or Bridget. Brid is the triple goddess of light, and a patron of the home, healers, poets, and smiths. Some compare her to the Greek goddess Hestia, the goddess of the home and hearth. Candles are lit and homes are blessed. Advent wreaths are a remnant of Brid's crown of candles. Imbolc is sometimes known as Candle-mas.
Ostra, the spring equinox, is the celebration of the Goddess rising and the Earth's resurrection. She returns from her winter slumber and brings with her the first signs of spring. The festival is names after the Teutonic goddess Ostre, the egg or see goddess. Blessing and planting seeds and painting eggs are part of these traditions. Although names after Ostre, the Greek myth of Persephone rising from the realm of the dead to usher in the growing season with her mother, Demeter, also resonates on the equinox.
Beltane is the first festival of May 1st. Traditionally, herds were driven between two large bale fires of sacred wood to purify them of any lingering winter illness. Modern purification rites, both with fire and water, are performed on Beltane. It is dedicated to the young, fiery god Bel. The God has grown from the winter solstice into a young man, and claims his role as the Goddess' lover. Sexuality and passion are enjoyed on Beltane, and May Pole dances are traditional, representing the union of the God into the Earth Goddess.
The summer solstice, or Feast of Litha,is the divine marriage of Goddess and God. They are at the peak of their power, as the land is in full bloom and the harvest is expected. The day is the longest of the year, giving us an extended period of twilight, when the doors to the faery realm are open wide and we may celebrate with the spirits of the other-world. Some traditions see this holiday as the battle of the divided light and dark aspects of the God. The dark king is victorious, claiming the throne with the Goddess.
Lammas, the fire festival of August 1st. In the Irish traditions it is known as Lughnassadh, after Lugh of the Long Arm, a god of light and grain. His talents are many and unequaled. Games and sports are played on this feast. Though originally names Lugh's Funeral Feast, after his mother's death, it is now associated with Lugh's own death, as the scarified king of the grain. Corn-dolly effigies are burned and the first grains of the harvest are cut and given as an offering to the gods in thanks. The sacrifice of the old God ushers in the bounty of the first harvest.
The second harvest is the fruit or wine harvest on the fall equinox. Named after the Celtic god Mabon, who gets lost in the Underworld, this is a time to journey to the dark. Wine is one of the ways to open the magickal passages between realms. Myths of other harvest gods, particular those associated with wine, such as Dionysus, are celebrated.
Samhain is the traditional meat harvest and the Celtic New Year. Falling on October 31st, it has been turned into modern Halloween, but was a very important pagan festival. Samhain is the day of the dead. This was the day when the first of the herd was slaughtered, opening the veils between the worlds. Since the day is one of death, ancestors who have passed on are associated with it, coming back through the veil to give blessings and advice. Soul meals are prepared for the dead, goodbyes are said to lost loved ones, and candles are lit to mark their way back. Eventually this thinning of the veil became a fearful event, and costumes were worn to scare away the walkers between the worlds, though originally it was a normal part of the culture, with no fear or dread.
These eight festivals are called Sabbats, thought the individual traditions celebrated them differently. The term harkens back to the Burning Times, to the Hebrews Sabbath, when witches and Jews alike were prosecuted as heretics. Modern witches have adopted the word. An Esbat refers to another type of ritual, usually a Moon ritual. Esbats are typically private circles, for covens, small groups who work magick together. Community and family are usually welcome to the Sabbaths, which are more celebratory in nature. With Esbats, the goal is working magick in an intimate setting. Esbats usually coincide with the Full or Dark Moon. Witches celebrate the 13 Moons of the lunar year. The term circle is sometimes used synonymously with Esbat, or with a group of practitioners, but a circle specifically refers to the ritual of the circle, a ceremony of celebration and magick called a witch's circle, moon circle, or magician's circle. Circles are cast in both Esbats and Sabbats or any other magickal event, depending on the tradition.
Life rituals, or rites of passage, are marked along with the holidays. Like tribal people, pagans mark turning points in life with ceremony or ritual. Traditions are individual, but usually birth, coming of age, hand-fasting (marriage), elder-hood, and death are celebrated.
*Credit to Christopher Penczak
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